Jump to content

Elm

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Elm (disambiguation).

Elm
Temporal range: Paleocene–Recent
U. minor, East Coker
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Rosales
Family: Ulmaceae
Genus: Ulmus
L.
Species

See

Elms are deciduous and semi-deciduous trees comprising the genus Ulmus in the family Ulmaceae. They are distributed over most of the Northern Hemisphere, inhabiting the temperate and tropical-montane regions of North America and Eurasia, presently ranging southward in the Middle East to Lebanon and Israel,[1] and across the Equator in the Far East into Indonesia.[2]

Elms are components of many kinds of natural forests. Moreover, during the 19th and early 20th centuries, many species and cultivars were also planted as ornamental street, garden, and park trees in Europe, North America, and parts of the Southern Hemisphere, notably Australasia. Some individual elms reached great size and age. However, in recent decades, most mature elms of European or North American origin have died from Dutch elm disease, caused by a microfungus dispersed by bark beetles. In response, disease-resistant cultivars have been developed, capable of restoring the elm to forestry and landscaping.

Description

[edit]

The genus is hermaphroditic, having apetalous perfect flowers which are wind-pollinated. Elm leaves are alternate, with simple, single- or, most commonly, doubly serrate margins, usually asymmetric at the base and acuminate at the apex. The fruit is a round wind-dispersed samara flushed with chlorophyll, facilitating photosynthesis before the leaves emerge.[3] The samarae are very light, those of British elms numbering around 50,000 to the pound (454 g).[4] (Very rarely anomalous samarae occur with more than two wings.[5]) All species are tolerant of a wide range of soils and pH levels but, with few exceptions, demand good drainage. The elm tree can grow to great height, the American elm in excess of 30 m (100 ft),[6] often with a forked trunk creating a vase profile.

  • 'Sapporo Autumn Gold', Antella, Florence
    'Sapporo Autumn Gold', Antella, Florence
  • Wych elm (Ulmus glabra) leaves and seeds
    Wych elm (Ulmus glabra) leaves and seeds
  • Asymmetry of leaf, slippery elm U. rubra
    Asymmetry of leaf, slippery elm U. rubra
  • Mature bark, slippery elm U. rubra
    Mature bark, slippery elm U. rubra
  • Flowers of the hybrid elm cultivar 'Columella'
    Flowers of the hybrid elm cultivar 'Columella'
  • Corky wings, Cedar elm, U. crassifolia
    Corky wings, Cedar elm, U. crassifolia
  • U. laciniata samara
    U. laciniata samara
  • U. americana, Dufferin St., Toronto, c. 1914
    U. americana, Dufferin St., Toronto, c. 1914
  • Ulmus parvifolia bark
    Ulmus parvifolia bark

Taxonomy

[edit]
Main articles: List of elm species; List of elm cultivars, hybrids and hybrid cultivars; and List of elm synonyms and accepted names

There are about 30 to 40 species of Ulmus (elm); the ambiguity in number results from difficulty in delineating species, owing to the ease of hybridization between them and the development of local seed-sterile vegetatively propagated microspecies in some areas, mainly in the Ulmus field elm (Ulmus minor) group. Oliver Rackham[7] describes Ulmus as the most critical genus in the entire British flora, adding that 'species and varieties are a distinction in the human mind rather than a measured degree of genetic variation'. Eight species are endemic to North America and three to Europe, but the greatest diversity is in Asia with approximately two dozen species.[2] The oldest fossils of Ulmus are leaves dating Paleocene, found across the Northern Hemisphere.[8]

The classification adopted in the List of elm species is largely based on that established by Brummitt.[9] A large number of synonyms have accumulated over the last three centuries; their currently accepted names can be found in the list of Elm synonyms and accepted names.

Botanists who study elms and argue over elm identification and classification are called "pteleologists", from the Greek πτελέα (elm).[10]

As part of the suborder urticalean rosids, they are distantly related to cannabis, mulberries, figs, hops, and nettles.

Ecology

[edit]

Propagation

[edit]
A rooted cutting of European white elm (July)

Elm propagation methods vary according to elm type and location, and the plantsman's needs. Native species may be propagated by seed. In their natural setting, native species, such as wych elm and European white elm in central and northern Europe and field elm in southern Europe, set viable seed in "favourable" seasons. Optimal conditions occur after a late warm spring.[11] After pollination, seeds of spring-flowering elms ripen and fall at the start of summer (June); they remain viable for only a few days. They are planted in sandy potting soil at a depth of 1 cm, and germinate in three weeks. Slow-germinating American elm will remain dormant until the second season.[12] Seeds from autumn-flowering elms ripen in the fall and germinate in the spring.[12] Since elms may hybridize within and between species, seed propagation entails a hybridisation risk. In unfavourable seasons, elm seeds are usually sterile. Elms outside their natural range, such as English elm U. minor 'Atinia', and elms unable to pollinate because pollen sources are genetically identical, are sterile and are propagated by vegetative reproduction. Vegetative reproduction is also used to produce genetically identical elms (clones). Methods include the winter transplanting of root suckers; taking hardwood cuttings from vigorous one-year-old shoots in late winter,[13] taking root cuttings in early spring; taking softwood cuttings in early summer;[14] grafting; ground and air layering; and micropropagation. A bottom heat of 18 °C[15] and humid conditions are maintained for hard- and softwood cuttings. The transplanting of root suckers remains the easiest most and common propagation method for European field elm and its hybrids. For specimen urban elms, grafting to wych-elm rootstock may be used to eliminate suckering or to ensure stronger root growth. The mutant-elm cultivars are usually grafted, the "weeping" elms 'Camperdown' and 'Horizontalis' at 2–3 m (7–10 ft), the dwarf cultivars 'Nana' and 'Jacqueline Hillier' at ground level. Since the Siberian elm is drought tolerant, in dry countries, new varieties of elm are often root-grafted onto this species.[16]

Associated organisms

[edit]
  • Pouch leaf galls on a wych elm (aphid Tetraneura ulmi), Germany
    Pouch leaf galls on a wych elm (aphid Tetraneura ulmi), Germany
  • Pouch leaf gall on elm leaf (aphid T. ulmi), the Netherlands
    Pouch leaf gall on elm leaf (aphid T. ulmi), the Netherlands
  • Cockscomb leaf galls (aphid Colopha compressa), Poland
    Cockscomb leaf galls (aphid Colopha compressa), Poland
  • Bladder leaf galls on elm leaves (aphid Eriosoma lanuginosum), Italy
    Bladder leaf galls on elm leaves (aphid Eriosoma lanuginosum), Italy
  • Bladder leaf galls on a narrow-leaved elm (aphid E. lanuginosum), Italy
    Bladder leaf galls on a narrow-leaved elm (aphid E. lanuginosum), Italy
  • Aphids in leaf gall, Poland
    Aphids in leaf gall, Poland
  • Pimple leaf galls on a field elm (mite Eriophyes ulmi), Spain
    Pimple leaf galls on a field elm (mite Eriophyes ulmi), Spain
  • White-letter hairstreak Satyrium w-album, on Lutece, Sweden: The larvae feed only on elm.
    White-letter hairstreak Satyrium w-album, on Lutece, Sweden: The larvae feed only on elm.
  • Egg of Satyrium w-album near flower-bud of an elm
    Egg of Satyrium w-album near flower-bud of an elm
  • Elm-bark beetle Scolytus multistriatus (size: 2–3 mm), a vector for Dutch elm disease
    Elm-bark beetle Scolytus multistriatus (size: 2–3 mm), a vector for Dutch elm disease
  • Scolytus multistriatus galleries under elm bark
    Scolytus multistriatus galleries under elm bark
  • Elm-leaf beetle Xanthogaleruca luteola, which causes serious damage to elm foliage
    Elm-leaf beetle Xanthogaleruca luteola, which causes serious damage to elm foliage
  • Xanthogaleruca luteola caterpillar on elm leaf, Germany
    Xanthogaleruca luteola caterpillar on elm leaf, Germany
  • Elm-leaf damage caused by X. luteola, Germany
    Elm-leaf damage caused by X. luteola, Germany
  • Bacterial infection Erwinia carotovora of elm sap, which causes slime flux (wetwood) and staining of the trunk (here on a 'Camperdown' elm)
    Bacterial infection Erwinia carotovora of elm sap, which causes slime flux (wetwood) and staining of the trunk (here on a 'Camperdown' elm)

Pests and diseases

[edit]
Main article: List of elm diseases

Dutch elm disease

[edit]
Main article: Dutch elm disease
Golden elm tree with Dutch elm disease

Dutch elm disease (DED) devastated elms throughout Europe and much of North America in the second half of the 20th century. It derives its name "Dutch" from the first description of the disease and its cause in the 1920s by Dutch botanists Bea Schwarz and Christina Johanna Buisman. Owing to its geographical isolation and effective quarantine enforcement, Australia has so far remained unaffected by DED, as have the provinces of Alberta and British Columbia in western Canada.

DED is caused by a microfungus transmitted by two species of Scolytus elm-bark beetles, which act as vectors. The disease affects all species of elms native to North America and Europe, but many Asiatic species have evolved antifungal genes and are resistant. Fungal spores, introduced into wounds in the tree caused by the beetles, invade the xylem or vascular system. The tree responds by producing tyloses, effectively blocking the flow from roots to leaves. Woodland trees in North America are not quite as susceptible to the disease because they usually lack the root grafting of the urban elms and are somewhat more isolated from each other. In France, inoculation with the fungus of over 300 clones of the European species failed to find a single variety that possessed of any significant resistance.

The first, less aggressive strain of the disease fungus, Ophiostoma ulmi, arrived in Europe from Asia in 1910, and was accidentally introduced to North America in 1928. It was steadily weakened by viruses in Europe and had all but disappeared by the 1940s. However, the disease had a much greater and longer-lasting impact in North America, owing to the greater susceptibility of the American elm, Ulmus americana, which masked the emergence of the second, far more virulent strain of the disease Ophiostoma novo-ulmi. It appeared in the United States sometime in the 1940s, and was originally believed to be a mutation of O. ulmi. Limited gene flow from O. ulmi to O. novo-ulmi was probably responsible for the creation of the North American subspecies O. novo-ulmi subsp. americana. It was first recognized in Britain in the early 1970s, believed to have been introduced via a cargo of Canadian rock elm destined for the boatbuilding industry, and rapidly eradicated most of the mature elms from western Europe. A second subspecies, O. novo-ulmi subsp. novo-ulmi, caused similar devastation in Eastern Europe and Central This subspecies, which was introduced to North America, and like O. ulmi, is thought to have originated in Asia. The two subspecies have now hybridized in Europe where their ranges have overlapped.[17] The hypothesis that O. novo-ulmi arose from a hybrid of the original O. ulmi and another strain endemic to the Himalayas, Ophiostoma himal-ulmi, is now discredited.[18]

No sign indicates the current pandemic is waning, and no evidence has been found of a susceptibility of the fungus to a disease of its own caused by d-factors: naturally occurring virus-like agents that severely debilitated the original O. ulmi and reduced its sporulation.[19]

Elm phloem necrosis

[edit]

Elm phloem necrosis (elm yellows) is a disease of elm trees that is spread by leafhoppers or by root grafts.[20] This very aggressive disease, with no known cure, occurs in the Eastern United States, southern Ontario in Canada, and Europe. It is caused by phytoplasmas that infect the phloem (inner bark) of the tree.[21] Infection and death of the phloem effectively girdles the tree and stops the flow of water and nutrients. The disease affects both wild-growing and cultivated trees. Occasionally, cutting the infected tree before the disease completely establishes itself and cleanup and prompt disposal of infected matter has resulted in the plant's survival via stump sprouts.

Insects

[edit]
The elm leaf beetle

Most serious of the elm pests is the elm leaf beetle Xanthogaleruca luteola, which can decimate foliage, although rarely with fatal results. The beetle was accidentally introduced to North America from Europe. Another unwelcome immigrant to North America is the Japanese beetle Popillia japonica. In both instances, the beetles cause far more damage in North America owing to the absence of the predators in their native lands. In Australia, introduced elm trees are sometimes used as food plants by the larvae of hepialid moths of the genus Aenetus. These burrow horizontally into the trunk then vertically down.[22][23] Circa 2000, the Asian Zig-zag sawfly Aproceros leucopoda appeared in Europe and North America, although in England, its impact has been minimal and it is no longer monitored.[24]

Birds

[edit]

Sapsucker woodpeckers have a great love of young elm trees.[25]

The ball-headed graft narvan elm, Ulmus minor 'Umbraculifera', cultivated in Persia and widely planted in central Asia
Lafayette Street in Salem, Massachusetts - an example of the high-tunneled effects of Ulmus americana avenues once common in New England (colorized postcard, 1910)

Cultivation

[edit]
Camperdown elm (Ulmus glabra 'Camperdownii'), cultivated in Prospect Park, Brooklyn, New York
An avenue of elm trees in Fitzroy Gardens, Melbourne
See also: List of elm cultivars, hybrids and hybrid cultivars

One of the earliest of ornamental elms was the ball-headed graft narvan elm, Ulmus minor 'Umbraculifera', cultivated from time immemorial in Persia as a shade tree and widely planted in cities through much of south-west and central Asia. From the 18th century to the early 20th century, elms, whether species, hybrids, or cultivars, were among the most widely planted ornamental trees in both Europe and North America. They were particularly popular as a street tree in avenue plantings in towns and cities, creating high-tunnelled effects. Their quick growth and variety of foliage and forms,[26] their tolerance of air-pollution, and the comparatively rapid decomposition of their leaf litter in the fall were further advantages.

In North America, the species most commonly planted was the American elm (U. americana), which had unique properties that made it ideal for such use - rapid growth, adaptation to a broad range of climates and soils, strong wood, resistance to wind damage, and vase-like growth habit requiring minimal pruning. In Europe, the wych elm (U. glabra) and the field elm (U. minor) were the most widely planted in the countryside, the former in northern areas including Scandinavia and northern Britain, the latter further south. The hybrid between these two, Dutch elm (U. × hollandica), occurs naturally and was also commonly planted. In much of England, the English elm later came to dominate the horticultural landscape. Most commonly planted in hedgerows, it sometimes occurred in densities over 1000/km2. In south-eastern Australia and New Zealand, large numbers of English and Dutch elms, as well as other species and cultivars, were planted as ornamentals following their introduction in the 19th century, while in northern Japan Japanese elm (U. davidiana var. japonica) was widely planted as a street tree. From about 1850 to 1920, the most prized small ornamental elm in parks and gardens was the 'Camperdown' elm (U. glabra 'Camperdownii'), a contorted, weeping cultivar of the wych elm grafted on to a nonweeping elm trunk to give a wide, spreading, and weeping fountain shape in large garden spaces.

In northern Europe, elms were among the few trees tolerant of saline deposits from sea spray, which can cause "salt-burning" and die-back. This tolerance made elms reliable both as shelterbelt trees exposed to sea wind, in particular along the coastlines of southern and western Britain[27][28] and in the Low Countries, and as trees for coastal towns and cities.[29]

This belle époque lasted until the First World War, when the elm began its slide into horticultural decline. The impact of the hostilities on Germany, the origin of at least 40 cultivars, coincided with an outbreak of the early strain of DED, Ophiostoma ulmi. The devastation caused by the Second World War, and the demise in 1944 of the huge Späth nursery in Berlin, only accelerated the process. The outbreak of the new, three times more virulent, strain of DED Ophiostoma novo-ulmi in the late 1960s, brought the tree to its nadir.

Since around 1990, the elm has enjoyed a renaissance through the successful development in North America and Europe of cultivars highly resistant to DED.[3] Consequently, the total number of named cultivars, ancient and modern, now exceeds 300, although many of the older clones, possibly over 120, have been lost to cultivation. Some of the latter, however, were by today's standards inadequately described or illustrated before the pandemic, and a number may survive, or have regenerated, unrecognised. Enthusiasm for the newer clones often remains low owing to the poor performance of earlier, supposedly disease-resistant Dutch trees released in the 1960s and 1970s. In the Netherlands, sales of elm cultivars slumped from over 56,000 in 1989 to just 6,800 in 2004,[30] whilst in the UK, only four of the new American and European releases were commercially available in 2008.

A row of Princeton elm trees, which are moderately resistant to Dutch elm disease, at Scripps College in Claremont, California.[31]

Efforts to develop DED-resistant cultivars began in the Netherlands in 1928 and continued, uninterrupted by World War II, until 1992.[32] Similar programmes were initiated in North America (1937), Italy (1978) and Spain (1986). Research has followed two paths:

Species and species cultivars

[edit]

In North America, careful selection has produced a number of trees resistant not only to DED, but also to the droughts and cold winters that occur on the continent. Research in the United States has concentrated on the American elm (U. americana), resulting in the release of DED-resistant clones, notably the cultivars 'Valley Forge' and 'Jefferson'. Much work has also been done into the selection of disease-resistant Asiatic species and cultivars.[33][34]

In 1993, Mariam B. Sticklen and Mark G. Bolyard reported the results of experiments funded by the US National Park Service and conducted at Michigan State University in East Lansing that were designed to apply genetic engineering techniques to the development of DED-resistant strains of American elm trees.[35] In 2007, A. E. Newhouse and F. Schrodt of the State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry in Syracuse reported that young transgenic American elm trees had shown reduced DED symptoms and normal mycorrhizal colonization.[36]

In Europe, the European white elm (U. laevis) has received much attention. While this elm has little innate resistance to DED, it is not favoured by the vector bark beetles. Thus it becomes colonized and infected only when no other elms are available, a rare situation in western Europe. Research in Spain has suggested that it may be the presence of a triterpene, alnulin, which makes the tree bark unattractive to the beetle species that spread the disease.[37] This possibility, though, has not been conclusively proven.[38] More recently, field elms Ulmus minor highly resistant to DED have been discovered in Spain, and form the basis of a major breeding programme.[39]

Hybrid cultivars

[edit]

Owing to their innate resistance to DED, Asiatic species have been crossed with European species, or with other Asiatic elms, to produce trees that are both highly resistant to disease and tolerant of native climates. After a number of false dawns in the 1970s, this approach has produced a range of reliable hybrid cultivars now commercially available in North America and Europe.[40][41][42][43][44][45][46] Disease resistance is invariably carried by the female parent.[47]

Some of these cultivars, notably those with the Siberian elm (Ulmus pumila) in their ancestry, lack the forms for which the iconic American elm and English elm were prized. Moreover, several exported to northwestern Europe have proven unsuited to the maritime climate conditions there, notably because of their intolerance of anoxic conditions resulting from ponding on poorly drained soils in winter. Dutch hybridizations invariably included the Himalayan elm (Ulmus wallichiana) as a source of antifungal genes and have proven more tolerant of wet ground; they should also ultimately reach a greater size. However, the susceptibility of the cultivar 'Lobel', used as a control in Italian trials, to elm yellows has now (2014) raised a question mark over all the Dutch clones.[48]

Several highly resistant Ulmus cultivars have been released since 2000 by the Institute of Plant Protection in Florence, most commonly featuring crosses of the Dutch cultivar 'Plantijn' with the Siberian elm to produce resistant trees better adapted to the Mediterranean climate.[41]

Cautions regarding novel cultivars

[edit]

Elms take many decades to grow to maturity, and as the introduction of these disease-resistant cultivars is relatively recent, their long-term performance and ultimate size and form cannot be predicted with certainty. The National Elm Trial in North America, begun in 2005, is a nationwide trial to assess strengths and weaknesses of the 19 leading cultivars raised in the US over a 10-year period; European cultivars have been excluded.[49] Meanwhile, in Europe, American and European cultivars are being assessed in field trials started in 2000 by the UK charity Butterfly Conservation.[50]

Landscaped parks

[edit]

Central Park

[edit]
American elm trees along the Mall and Literary Walk in New York City's Central Park (2013)

The oldest American elm trees in New York City's Central Park were planted in the 1860s by Frederick Law Olmsted, making them among the oldest stands of American elms in the world. Along the Mall and Literary Walk four lines of American elms stretch over the walkway forming a cathedral-like covering. A part of New York City's urban ecology, the elms improve air and water quality, reduce erosion and flooding, and decrease air temperatures during warm days.[51]

While the stand is still vulnerable to DED, in the 1980s the Central Park Conservancy undertook aggressive countermeasures such as heavy pruning and removal of extensively diseased trees. These efforts have largely been successful in saving the majority of the trees, although several are still lost each year. Younger American elms that have been planted in Central Park since the outbreak are of the DED-resistant 'Princeton' and 'Valley Forge' cultivars.[52]

National Mall

[edit]
Rows of American elm trees line a path south of the Lincoln Memorial Reflecting Pool on the National Mall in Washington, DC (November 11, 2006)

Several rows of American elm trees that the National Park Service (NPS) first planted during the 1930s line much of the 1.9-mile-length (3 km) of the National Mall in Washington, DC. DED first appeared on the trees during the 1950s and reached a peak in the 1970s. The NPS used a number of methods to control the epidemic, including sanitation, pruning, injecting trees with fungicide, and replanting with DED-resistant cultivars. The NPS combated the disease's local insect vector, the smaller European elm bark beetle (Scolytus multistriatus), by trapping and by spraying with insecticides. As a result, the population of American elms planted on the Mall and its surrounding areas has remained intact for more than 80 years.[53]

Uses

[edit]

Wood

[edit]
Elm wood
Elm in boatbuilding: John Constable, Boat-Building Near Flatford Mill, 1815 (landscape with hybrid elms Ulmus × hollandica[11])
English longbow of elm

Elm wood is valued for its interlocking grain, and consequent resistance to splitting, with significant uses in wagon-wheel hubs, chair seats, and coffins. The bodies of Japanese Taiko drums are often cut from the wood of old elm trees, as the wood's resistance to splitting is highly desired for nailing the skins to them, and a set of three or more is often cut from the same tree. The elm's wood bends well and distorts easily. The often long, straight trunks were favoured as a source of timber for keels in ship construction. Elm is also prized by bowyers; of the ancient bows found in Europe, a large portion are elm. During the Middle Ages, elm was also used to make longbows if yew was unavailable.

The first written references to elm occur in the Linear B lists of military equipment at Knossos in the Mycenaean period. Several of the chariots are of elm ("πτε-ρε-ϝα", pte-re-wa), and the lists twice mention wheels of elmwood.[54] Hesiod says that ploughs in Ancient Greece were also made partly of elm.[55]

The density of elm wood varies between species, but averages around 560 kg/m3.[56]

Elm wood is also resistant to decay when permanently wet, and hollowed trunks were widely used as water pipes during the medieval period in Europe. Elm was also used as piers in the construction of the original London Bridge, but this resistance to decay in water does not extend to ground contact.[56]

Viticulture

[edit]

The Romans, and more recently the Italians, planted elms in vineyards as supports for vines. Lopped at 3 m, the elms' quick growth, twiggy lateral branches, light shade, and root suckering made them ideal trees for this purpose. The lopped branches were used for fodder and firewood.[57] Ovid in his Amores characterizes the elm as "loving the vine": ulmus amat vitem, vitis non deserit ulmum (the elm loves the vine, the vine does not desert the elm),[58] and the ancients spoke of the "marriage" between elm and vine.[59]

Medicinal products

[edit]

The mucilaginous inner bark of the slippery elm (Ulmus rubra) has long been used as a demulcent, and is still produced commercially for this purpose in the US with approval for sale as a nutritional supplement by the Food and Drug Administration.[60]

Fodder

[edit]

Elms also have a long history of cultivation for fodder, with the leafy branches cut to feed livestock. The practice continues today in the Himalaya, where it contributes to serious deforestation.[61]

Biomass

[edit]

As fossil fuel resources diminish, increasing attention is being paid to trees as sources of energy. In Italy, the Istituto per la Protezione delle Piante is (2012) in the process of releasing to commerce very fast-growing elm cultivars, able to increase in height by more than 2 m (6 ft) per year.[62]

Food

[edit]

Elm bark, cut into strips and boiled, sustained much of the rural population of Norway during the great famine of 1812. The seeds are particularly nutritious, containing 45% crude protein, and less than 7% fibre by dry mass.[63]

Internal mill-wheel of elm, De Hoop mill, Oldebroek, Netherlands

Alternative medicine

[edit]

Elm has been listed as one of the 38 substances that are used to prepare Bach flower remedies,[64] a kind of alternative medicine.

Bonsai

[edit]
Chinese Elm Ulmus parvifolia bonsai

Chinese elm (Ulmus parvifolia) is a popular choice for bonsai owing to its tolerance of severe pruning.

Genetic resource conservation

[edit]

In 1997, a European Union elm project was initiated, its aim to coordinate the conservation of all the elm genetic resources of the member states and, among other things, to assess their resistance to Dutch elm disease. Accordingly, over 300 clones were selected and propagated for testing.[65][66][67]

Culture

[edit]

Notable elm trees

[edit]
Main article: Lists of elm trees

Many elm trees of various kinds have attained great size or otherwise become particularly noteworthy.

In art

[edit]

Many artists have admired elms for the ease and grace of their branching and foliage, and have painted them with sensitivity. Elms are a recurring element in the landscapes and studies of, for example, John Constable, Ferdinand Georg Waldmüller, Frederick Childe Hassam, Karel Klinkenberg,[68] and George Inness.

  • John Constable, Elm trees in Old Hall Park, East Bergholt [1817] (Ulmus × hollandica[11])
    John Constable, Elm trees in Old Hall Park, East Bergholt [1817] (Ulmus × hollandica[11])
  • John Constable, Study of an Elm Tree [1821]
    John Constable, Study of an Elm Tree [1821]
  • John Constable, The Cornfield [1826] (Ulmus × hollandica[11])
    John Constable, The Cornfield [1826] (Ulmus × hollandica[11])
  • Constable, Salisbury Cathedral from the Bishop's Garden [1823 version] (Ulmus × hollandica[11])
    Constable, Salisbury Cathedral from the Bishop's Garden [1823 version] (Ulmus × hollandica[11])
  • Jacob George Strutt, Elms at Mongewell, Oxfordshire [1830] (U. minor 'Atinia')
    Jacob George Strutt, Elms at Mongewell, Oxfordshire [1830] (U. minor 'Atinia')
  • Ferdinand Georg Waldmüller, Alte Ulmen im Prater (Old Elms in Prater) [1831]
    Ferdinand Georg Waldmüller, Alte Ulmen im Prater (Old Elms in Prater) [1831]
  • James Duffield Harding, The Great Exhibition of 1851 (U. minor 'Atinia', centre)
    James Duffield Harding, The Great Exhibition of 1851 (U. minor 'Atinia', centre)
  • Arthur Hughes, Home from Sea [1862] (U. minor 'Atinia'[11])
    Arthur Hughes, Home from Sea [1862] (U. minor 'Atinia'[11])
  • Ford Madox Brown, Work [1863] (U. minor 'Atinia'[11])
    Ford Madox Brown, Work [1863] (U. minor 'Atinia'[11])
  • [unknown artist] The American Elm [1879] (U. americana)
    [unknown artist] The American Elm [1879] (U. americana)
  • Johannes Karel Christiaan Klinkenberg, Amsterdam [1890] (Ulmus x hollandica ‘Belgica' )
    Johannes Karel Christiaan Klinkenberg, Amsterdam [1890] (Ulmus x hollandica ‘Belgica' )
  • Frederick Childe Hassam, Champs Elysées, Paris [1889] (Ulmus × hollandica, 'orme femelle'[11])
    Frederick Childe Hassam, Champs Elysées, Paris [1889] (Ulmus × hollandica, 'orme femelle'[11])
  • Frederick Childe Hassam, Washington Arch, Spring [1893] (U. americana)
    Frederick Childe Hassam, Washington Arch, Spring [1893] (U. americana)
  • Frederick Childe Hassam, Church at Old Lyme [1905] (U. americana)
    Frederick Childe Hassam, Church at Old Lyme [1905] (U. americana)
  • Frederick Childe Hassam, The East Hampton Elms in May [1920] (U. americana)
    Frederick Childe Hassam, The East Hampton Elms in May [1920] (U. americana)
  • George Inness, Old Elm at Medfield (U. americana)
    George Inness, Old Elm at Medfield (U. americana)
  • Unknown artist, The Cam near Trinity College, Cambridge, England (U. atinia)
    Unknown artist, The Cam near Trinity College, Cambridge, England (U. atinia)

In mythology and literature

[edit]
Achilles and Scamander
Dryad

In Greek mythology, the nymph Ptelea (Πτελέα, Elm) was one of the eight hamadryads, nymphs of the forest and daughters of Oxylos and Hamadryas.[69] In his Hymn to Artemis, poet Callimachus (third century BC) tells how, at the age of three, the infant goddess Artemis practised her newly acquired silver bow and arrows, made for her by Hephaestus and the Cyclopes, by shooting first at an elm, then at an oak, before turning her aim on a wild animal:

πρῶτον ἐπὶ πτελέην, τὸ δὲ δεύτερον ἧκας ἐπὶ δρῦν, τὸ τρίτον αὖτ᾽ ἐπὶ θῆρα.[70]

The first reference in literature to elms occurs in the Iliad. When Eetion, father of Andromache, is killed by Achilles during the Trojan War, the mountain nymphs plant elms on his tomb ("περί δὲ πτελέας ἐφύτευσαν νύμφαι ὀρεστιάδες, κoῦραι Διὸς αἰγιόχoιo").[71] Also in the Iliad, when the River Scamander, indignant at the sight of so many corpses in his water, overflows and threatens to drown Achilles, the latter grasps a branch of a great elm in an attempt to save himself ("ὁ δὲ πτελέην ἕλε χερσὶν εὐφυέα μεγάλην".[72]

The nymphs also planted elms on the tomb in the Thracian Chersonese of "great-hearted Protesilaus" ("μεγάθυμου Πρωτεσιλάου"), the first Greek to fall in the Trojan War. These elms grew to be the tallest in the known world, but when their topmost branches saw far off the ruins of Troy, they immediately withered, so great still was the bitterness of the hero buried below, who had been loved by Laodamia and slain by Hector.[73][74][75] The story is the subject of a poem by Antiphilus of Byzantium (first century AD) in the Palatine Anthology:

Θεσσαλὲ Πρωτεσίλαε, σὲ μὲν πολὺς ᾄσεται αἰών,
Tρoίᾳ ὀφειλoμένoυ πτώματος ἀρξάμενoν•
σᾶμα δὲ τοι πτελέῃσι συνηρεφὲς ἀμφικoμεῦση
Nύμφαι, ἀπεχθoμένης Ἰλίoυ ἀντιπέρας.
Δένδρα δὲ δυσμήνιτα, καὶ ἤν ποτε τεῖχoς ἴδωσι
Tρώϊον, αὐαλέην φυλλοχoεῦντι κόμην.
ὅσσoς ἐν ἡρώεσσι τότ᾽ ἦν χόλoς, oὗ μέρoς ἀκμὴν
ἐχθρὸν ἐν ἀψύχoις σώζεται ἀκρέμoσιν.[76]
[:Thessalian Protesilaos, a long age shall sing your praises,
Of the destined dead at Troy the first;
Your tomb with thick-foliaged elms they covered,
The nymphs, across the water from hated Ilion.
Trees full of anger; and whenever that wall they see,
Of Troy, the leaves in their upper crown wither and fall.
So great in the heroes was the bitterness then, some of which still
Remembers, hostile, in the soulless upper branches.]

Protesilaus had been king of Pteleos (Πτελεός) in Thessaly, which took its name from the abundant elms (πτελέoι) in the region.[77]

Elms occur often in pastoral poetry, where they symbolise the idyllic life, their shade being mentioned as a place of special coolness and peace. In the first Idyll of Theocritus (third century BC), for example, the goatherd invites the shepherd to sit "here beneath the elm" ("δεῦρ' ὑπὸ τὰν πτελέαν") and sing. Beside elms, Theocritus places "the sacred water" ("το ἱερὸν ὕδωρ") of the Springs of the Nymphs and the shrines to the nymphs.[78]

The Sibyl and Aeneas

Aside from references literal and metaphorical to the elm and vine theme, the tree occurs in Latin literature in the Elm of Dreams in the Aeneid.[79] When the Sibyl of Cumae leads Aeneas down to the Underworld, one of the sights is the Stygian Elm:

In medio ramos annosaque bracchia pandit
ulmus opaca, ingens, quam sedem somnia vulgo
uana tenere ferunt, foliisque sub omnibus haerent.
[:Spreads in the midst her boughs and agéd arms
an elm, huge, shadowy, where vain dreams, 'tis said,
are wont to roost them, under every leaf close-clinging.]

Virgil refers to a Roman superstition (vulgo) that elms were trees of ill-omen because their fruit seemed to be of no value.[80] It has been noted[81] that two elm-motifs have arisen from classical literature: (1) the 'Paradisal Elm' motif, arising from pastoral idylls and the elm-and-vine theme, and (2) the 'Elm and Death' motif, perhaps arising from Homer's commemorative elms and Virgil's Stygian Elm. Many references to elm in European literature from the Renaissance onwards fit into one or other of these categories.

There are two examples of pteleogenesis (:birth from elms) in world myths. In Germanic and Scandinavian mythology the first woman, Embla, was fashioned from an elm,[82] while in Japanese mythology Kamuy Fuchi, the chief goddess of the Ainu people, "was born from an elm impregnated by the Possessor of the Heavens".[83]

Under the elm, Brighton, 2006

The elm occurs frequently in English literature, one of the best known instances being in Shakespeare's A Midsummer Night's Dream, where Titania, Queen of the Fairies, addresses her beloved Nick Bottom using an elm-simile. Here, as often in the elm-and-vine motif, the elm is a masculine symbol:

Sleep thou, and I will wind thee in my arms.
... the female Ivy so
Enrings the barky fingers of the Elm.
O, how I love thee! how I dote on thee![84]

Another of the most famous kisses in English literature, that of Paul and Helen at the start of Forster's Howards End, is stolen beneath a great wych elm.

The elm tree is also referenced in children's literature. An Elm Tree and Three Sisters by Norma Sommerdorf is a children's book about three young sisters who plant a small elm tree in their backyard.[85]

In politics

[edit]

The cutting of the elm was a diplomatic altercation between the kings of France and England in 1188, during which an elm tree near Gisors in Normandy was felled.[86]

In politics, the elm is associated with revolutions. In England after the Glorious Revolution of 1688, the final victory of parliamentarians over monarchists, and the arrival from Holland, with William III and Mary II, of the Dutch elm hybrid, planting of this cultivar became a fashion among enthusiasts of the new political order.[87][88]

In the American Revolution, the Liberty Tree was an American white elm in Boston, Massachusetts, in front of which, from 1765, the first resistance meetings were held against British attempts to tax the American colonists without democratic representation. When the British, knowing that the tree was a symbol of rebellion, felled it in 1775, the Americans took to widespread Liberty Elm planting, and sewed elm symbols on to their revolutionary flags.[89][90] Elm planting by American Presidents later became something of a tradition.

In the French Revolution, too, Les arbres de la liberté (Liberty Trees), often elms, were planted as symbols of revolutionary hopes, the first in Vienne, Isère, in 1790, by a priest inspired by the Boston elm.[89] L'Orme de La Madeleine (:the Elm of La Madeleine), Faycelles, Département de Lot, planted around 1790 and surviving to this day, was a case in point.[91] By contrast, a famous Parisian elm associated with the Ancien Régime, L'Orme de Saint-Gervais in the Place St-Gervais, was felled by the revolutionaries; church authorities planted a new elm in its place in 1846, and an early 20th-century elm stands on the site today.[92] Premier Lionel Jospin, obliged by tradition to plant a tree in the garden of the Hôtel Matignon, the official residence and workplace of Prime Ministers of France, insisted on planting an elm, so-called 'tree of the Left', choosing the new disease-resistant hybrid 'Clone 762' (Ulmus 'Wanoux' = Vada).[93] In the French Republican Calendar, in use from 1792 to 1806, the 12th day of the month Ventôse (= 2 March) was officially named "jour de l'Orme", Day of the Elm.

Liberty Elms were also planted in other countries in Europe to celebrate their revolutions, an example being L'Olmo di Montepaone, L'Albero della Libertà (:the Elm of Montepaone, Liberty Tree) in Montepaone, Calabria, planted in 1799 to commemorate the founding of the democratic Parthenopean Republic, and surviving until it was brought down by a recent storm (it has since been cloned and 'replanted').[94] After the Greek Revolution of 1821–32, a thousand young elms were brought to Athens from Missolonghi, "Sacred City of the Struggle" against the Turks and scene of Lord Byron's death, and planted in 1839–40 in the National Garden.[95][96] In an ironic development, feral elms have spread and invaded the grounds of the abandoned Greek royal summer palace at Tatoi in Attica.

In a chance event linking elms and revolution, on the morning of his execution (30 January 1649), walking to the scaffold at the Palace of Whitehall, King Charles I turned to his guards and pointed out, with evident emotion, an elm near the entrance to Spring Gardens that had been planted by his brother in happier days. The tree was said to be still standing in the 1860s.[97]

  • Planting a Liberty Tree (un arbre de la liberté) during the French Revolution. Jean-Baptiste Lesueur, 1790
    Planting a Liberty Tree (un arbre de la liberté) during the French Revolution. Jean-Baptiste Lesueur, 1790
  • Balcony with elm symbol, overlooking the 'Crossroads of the Elm', Place Saint-Gervais, Paris[92]
    Balcony with elm symbol, overlooking the 'Crossroads of the Elm', Place Saint-Gervais, Paris[92]
  • President George W. Bush and Laura Bush planting a disease-resistant 'Jefferson' Elm before the White House, 2006
    President George W. Bush and Laura Bush planting a disease-resistant 'Jefferson' Elm before the White House, 2006
  • Elm suckers spreading before the abandoned summer royal palace in Tatoi, Greece, Μarch 2008
    Elm suckers spreading before the abandoned summer royal palace in Tatoi, Greece, Μarch 2008

In local history and place names

[edit]

The name of what is now the London neighbourhood of Seven Sisters is derived from seven elms which stood there at the time when it was a rural area, planted a circle with a walnut tree at their centre, and traceable on maps back to 1619.[98][99]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Flora of Israel Online: Ulmus minor Mill. | Flora of Israel Online, accessdate: July 28, 2020
  2. ^ a b Fu, L., Xin, Y. & Whittemore, A. (2002). Ulmaceae, in Wu, Z. & Raven, P. (eds) Flora of China Archived 10 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine, Vol. 5 (Ulmaceae through Basellaceae). Science Press, Beijing, and Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. Louis, US.
  3. ^ a b Heybroek, H. M., Goudzwaard, L, Kaljee, H. (2009). Iep of olm, karakterboom van de Lage Landen (:Elm, a tree with character of the Low Countries). KNNV, Uitgeverij. ISBN 9789050112819
  4. ^ Edlin, H. L. (1947). British Woodland Trees,  p.26. 3rd. edition. London: B. T. Batsford Ltd.
  5. ^ J.-F. Leroy, 'Note sur quelques anomalies des fleurs et des fruits dans le genre Ulmus ', Bulletin de Muséum national d'histoire naturelle, 2nd Ser., Vol.17, p.326
  6. ^ Neeland, R.W. Important Forest Trees of the Eastern United States, United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service. p.68.
  7. ^ Rackham, Oliver (1980). Ancient woodland: its history, vegetation and uses. Edward Arnold, London
  8. ^ Zhang, Qiu-Yue; Huang, Jian; Jia, Lin-Bo; Su, Tao; Zhou, Zhe-Kun; Xing, Yao-Wu (December 2018). "Miocene Ulmus fossil fruits from Southwest China and their evolutionary and biogeographic implications". Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology. 259: 198–206. Bibcode:2018RPaPa.259..198Z. doi:10.1016/j.revpalbo.2018.10.007. S2CID 135184883.
  9. ^ Brummitt, R. K. (1992). Vascular Plant Families & Genera. Royal Botanic Garden, Kew, London, UK.
  10. ^ Marren, Peter, Woodland Heritage (Newton Abbot, 1990).
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h Richens, R. H. (1983). Elm. Cambridge University Press.
  12. ^ a b forestry.about.com/od/treeplanting/qt/seed_elm.htm
  13. ^ "Propagation: Root an Elm Tree Cutting | DoItYourself.com". Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 30 November 2013.
  14. ^ cru.cahe.wsu.edu/CEPublications/pnw0152/pnw0152.html
  15. ^ resistantelms.co.uk/elms/ulmus-morfeo/
  16. ^ Clouston, B., Stansfield, K., eds., After the Elm (London, 1979)
  17. ^ Webber, J. (2019). What have we learned from 100 years of Dutch Elm Disease? Quarterly Journal of Forestry. October 2019, Vol. 113, No.4,  p.264-268. Royal Forestry Society, UK.
  18. ^ Brasier, C. M. & Mehotra, M. D. (1995). Ophiostoma himal-ulmi sp. nov., a new species of Dutch elm disease fungus endemic to the Himalayas. Mycological Research 1995, vol. 99 (2), 205–215 (44 ref.) ISSN 0953-7562. Elsevier, Oxford, UK.
  19. ^ Brasier, C. M. (1996). New horizons in Dutch elm disease control. Pages 20-28 in: Report on Forest Research Archived 28 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine, 1996. Forestry Commission. HMSO, London, UK.
  20. ^ "Elm Yellows Archived 4 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine". Elmcare.Com. 19 March 2008.
  21. ^ Price, Terry. "Wilt Diseases Archived 28 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine". Forestpests.Org. 23 March 2005. 19 March 2008.
  22. ^ Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920). "Elm-Insects" . Encyclopedia Americana.
  23. ^ Gilman, D. C.; Peck, H. T.; Colby, F. M., eds. (1905). "Elm-Insects" . New International Encyclopedia (1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead.
  24. ^ Elm zigzag sawfly (Aproceros leucopoda)
  25. ^ "Sapsucker Vs Woodpecker: How To Tell The Difference". Forest Wildlife. 10 May 2022. Retrieved 1 July 2022.
  26. ^ Elwes, H. J. & Henry, A. (1913). The Trees of Great Britain & Ireland Archived 3 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Vol. VII. 1848–1929. Republished 2004 Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9781108069380
  27. ^ Edlin, H. L., Guide to Tree Planting and Cultivation (London, 1970), p.330, p.316
  28. ^ 'Salt-tolerant landscape plants', countyofdane.com/myfairlakes/A3877.pdf
  29. ^ dutchtrig.com/the_netherlands/the_hague.html
  30. ^ Hiemstra, J.A.; et al. (2007). Belang en toekomst van de iep in Nederland [Importance and future of the elm in the Netherlands]. Wageningen, Netherlands: Praktijkonderzoek Plant & Omgeving B.V. Archived from the original on 28 September 2014. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
  31. ^ "Elm Tree Lawn Begins New Life". Scripps College News. Scripps College. 14 April 2008. Retrieved 18 February 2021.
  32. ^ Burdekin, D.A.; Rushforth, K.D. (November 1996). "Elms resistant to Dutch elm disease" (PDF). Arboriculture Research Note. 2/96. Revised by J.F. Webber. Alice Holt Lodge, Farnham: Arboricultural Advisory & Information Service: 1–9. ISSN 1362-5128. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 October 2017. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
  33. ^ Ware, G. (1995). Little-known elms from China: landscape tree possibilities. Journal of Arboriculture Archived 30 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine, (November 1995). International Society of Arboriculture, Champaign, Illinois, US.
  34. ^ Biggerstaffe, C., Iles, J. K., & Gleason, M. L. (1999). Sustainable urban landscapes: Dutch elm disease and disease-resistant elms. SUL-4, Iowa State University
  35. ^ Bolyard, Mark G.; Sticklen, Mariam B. (1993). "Chapter 13: Strategies for the Production of Disease-Resistant Elms". In Sticklen, Mariam B.; Sherald, James L. (eds.). Dutch Elm Disease Research: Cellular and Molecular Approaches. New York: Springer-Verlag. pp. 171–183. ISBN 9781461568728. LCCN 93017484. OCLC 851736058. Retrieved 26 December 2024 – via Google Books.
  36. ^ Newhouse, A. E.; Schrodt, F; Liang, H.; Maynard, C. A.; Powell, W. A. (2007). "Transgenic American elm shows reduced Dutch elm disease symptoms and normal mycorrhizal colonization". Plant Cell Rep. 26 (7): 977–987. doi:10.1007/s00299-007-0313-z. PMID 17310333. S2CID 21780088.
  37. ^ Martín-Benito D., Concepción García-Vallejo M., Pajares J. A., López D. 2005. "Triterpenes in elms in Spain Archived 28 June 2007 at the Wayback Machine". Can. J. For. Res. 35: 199–205 (2005).
  38. ^ Pajares, J. A., García, S., Díez, J. J., Martín, D. & García-Vallejo, M. C. 2004. "Feeding responses by Scolytus scolytus to twig bark extracts from elms Archived 7 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine". Invest Agrar: Sist Recur For. 13: 217–225.
  39. ^ Martín, JA; Solla, A; Venturas, M; Collada, C; Domínguez, J; Miranda, E; Fuentes, P; Burón, M; Iglesias, S; Gil, L (1 April 2015). "Seven Ulmus minor clones tolerant to Ophiostoma novo-ulmi registered as forest reproductive material in Spain". IForest - Biogeosciences and Forestry. 8 (2). Italian Society of Sivilculture and Forest Ecology (SISEF): 172–180. doi:10.3832/ifor1224-008. ISSN 1971-7458.
  40. ^ "Scientific Name: Ulmus x species" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 December 2008. Retrieved 26 May 2018.
  41. ^ a b Santini A., Fagnani A., Ferrini F., Mittempergher L., Brunetti M., Crivellaro A., Macchioni N., "Elm breeding for DED resistance, the Italian clones and their wood properties Archived 26 October 2007 at the Wayback Machine". Invest Agrar: Sist. Recur. For (2004) 13 (1), 179–184. 2004.
  42. ^ Santamour, J., Frank, S. & Bentz, S. (1995). Updated checklist of elm (Ulmus) cultivars for use in North America. Journal of Arboriculture, 21:3 (May 1995), 121–131. International Society of Arboriculture, Champaign, Illinois, US
  43. ^ Smalley, E. B. & Guries, R. P. (1993). Breeding Elms for Resistance to Dutch Elm Disease. Annual Review of Phytopathology Vol. 31 : 325–354. Palo Alto, California
  44. ^ Heybroek, Hans M. (1983). Burdekin, D.A. (ed.). "Resistant elms for Europe" (PDF). Forestry Commission Bulletin (Research on Dutch Elm Disease in Europe) (60). London: HMSO: 108–113. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 February 2017.
  45. ^ Heybroek, H.M. (1993). "The Dutch Elm Breeding Program". In Sticklen, Mariam B.; Sherald, James L. (eds.). Dutch Elm Disease Research. New York, USA: Springer-Verlag. pp. 16–25. ISBN 978-1-4615-6874-2. Archived from the original on 26 October 2017. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
  46. ^ Mittempergher, L; Santini, A (2004). "The history of elm breeding" (PDF). Investigacion Agraria: Sistemas y Recursos Forestales. 13 (1): 161–177. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 February 2017.
  47. ^ Martin, J., Sobrina-Plata, J., Rodriguez-Calcerrada, J., Collada, C., and Gil, L. (2018). Breeding and scientific advances in the fight against Dutch elm disease: Will they allow the use of elms in forest restoration? New Forests, 1-33. Springer Nature 2018. [1]
  48. ^ Mittempergher, L., (2000). Elm Yellows in Europe. In: The Elms, Conservation and Disease Management. pp. 103-119. Dunn C.P., ed. Kluwer Academic Press Publishers, Boston, USA.
  49. ^ (1) "National Elm Trial". Bioagricultural Sciences & Pest Management. Fort Collins, Colorado: Colorado State University College of Agricultural Sciences: Department of Agricultural Biology. 2018. Archived from the original on 30 March 2018. Retrieved 8 February 2021..
    (2) Griffin, Jason J.; Jacobi, E., William R.; McPherson, Gregory; Sadof, Clifford S.; et al. (2017). "Ten-Year Performance of the United States National Elm Trial" (PDF). Arboriculture & Urban Forestry. 43 (3). International Society of Arboriculture: 107–120. doi:10.17660/ActaHortic.2018.1191.5. ISSN 0567-7572. OCLC 7347020445. Retrieved 7 February 2021.
  50. ^ Brookes, A. H. (2013). Disease-resistant elm cultivars, Butterfly Conservation trials report, 2nd revision, 2013. Butterfly Conservation, Hants & IoW Branch, England. "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 May 2014. Retrieved 30 January 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  51. ^ Central Park Conservancy. The Mall and Literary Walk Archived 10 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine.
  52. ^ Pollak, Michael. The New York Times. "Answers to Questions About New York Archived April 1, 2016, at the Wayback Machine." 11 January 2013.
  53. ^ Sherald, James L (December 2009). Elms for the Monumental Core: History and Management Plan (PDF). Washington, D.C.: Center for Urban Ecology, National Capital Region, National Park Service. Natural Resource Report NPS/NCR/NRR--2009/001. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 November 2010. Retrieved 14 October 2010.
  54. ^ Michael Ventris and John Chadwick, Documents in Mycaenean Greek, Cambridge 1959
  55. ^ Hesiod, Works and Days, 435
  56. ^ a b Elm Archived 3 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Niche Timbers. Accessed 19-08-2009.
  57. ^ Columella, De Re Rustica
  58. ^ Ovid, Amores 2.16.41
  59. ^ Virgil, Georgica, I.2: ulmis adiungere vites (:to marry vines to elms); Horace, Epistolae 1.16.3: amicta vitibus ulmo (the elm clothed in the vine); and Catullus, Carmina, 62
  60. ^ Braun, Lesley; Cohen, Marc (2006). Herbs and Natural Supplements: An Evidence-Based Guide (2nd ed.). Churchill Livingstone. p. 586. ISBN 978-0-7295-3796-4., quote:"Although Slippery Elm has not been scientifically investigated, the FDA has approved it as a safe demulcent substance."
  61. ^ Maunder, M. (1988). Plants in Peril, 3. Ulmus wallichiana (Ulmaceae). Kew Magazine. 5(3): 137-140. Royal Botanic Garden, Kew, London.
  62. ^ Santini, A., Pecori, F., Pepori, A. L., Ferrini, F., Ghelardini, L. (In press). Genotype × environment interaction and growth stability of several elm clones resistant to Dutch elm disease. Forest Ecology and Management. Elsevier B. V., Netherlands.
  63. ^ Osborne, P. (1983). The influence of Dutch elm disease on bird population trends. Bird Study, 1983: 27-38.
  64. ^ D. S. Vohra (1 June 2004). Bach Flower Remedies: A Comprehensive Study. B. Jain Publishers. p. 3. ISBN 978-81-7021-271-3. Archived from the original on 31 December 2013. Retrieved 2 September 2013.
  65. ^ Solla, A., Bohnens, J., Collin, E., Diamandis, S., Franke, A., Gil, L., Burón, M., Santini, A., Mittempergher, L., Pinon, J., and Vanden Broeck, A. (2005). Screening European Elms for Resistance to Ophiostoma novo-ulmi. Forest Science 51(2) 2005. Society of American Foresters, Bethesda, Maryland, USA.
  66. ^ Pinon J., Husson C., Collin E. (2005). Susceptibility of native French elm clones to Ophiostoma novo-ulmi. Annals of Forest Science 62: 1–8
  67. ^ Collin, E. (2001). Elm. In Teissier du Cros (Ed.) (2001) Forest Genetic Resources Management and Conservation. France as a case study. Min. Agriculture, Bureau des Ressources Genetiques CRGF, INRA-DIC, Paris: 38–39.
  68. ^ Johannes Christiaan Karel Klinkenberg Archived 21 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine
  69. ^ Athenaeus, Δειπνοσοφισταί, III
  70. ^ Callimachus, Hymn to Artemis, 120-121 [:First at an elm, and second at an oak didst thou shoot, and third again at a wild beast]. theoi.com/Text/CallimachusHymns1.html
  71. ^ 'and all about were elm trees planted by nymphs of the mountain, daughters of Zeus that beareth the aegis.' http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0134:book=6:card=414&highlight=elm Iliad, Ζ, 419–420, www.perseus.tufts.edu] Archived 26 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  72. ^ Iliad, Φ, 242–243, www.perseus.tufts.edu Archived 26 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  73. ^ Philostratus, ̔Ηρωικός, 3,1 perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0597%3Aolpage%3D672
  74. ^ Quintus Smyrnaeus, Τα μεθ' `Ομηρον, 7.458–462
  75. ^ Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia, 16.88
  76. ^ Anth. Pal., 7.141
  77. ^ Lucas, F. L., From Olympus to the Styx (London, 1934)
  78. ^ Theocritus, Eιδύλλιo I, 19–23; VII, 135–40
  79. ^ Vergil, Aeneid, VI. 282–5
  80. ^ Richens, R. H., Elm (Cambridge 1983) p.155
  81. ^ Richens, R. H., Elm, Ch.10 (Cambridge, 1983)
  82. ^ Heybroek, H. M., 'Resistant Elms for Europe' (1982) in Research on Dutch Elm Disease in Europe, HMSO, London 1983
  83. ^ Wilkinson, Gerald, Epitaph for the Elm (London, 1978), p.87
  84. ^ Shakespeare, A Midsummer Night's Dream, Act 4, Scene 1
  85. ^ Janssen, Carolyn. "An elm tree and three sisters (Book Review)". ebscohost. Retrieved 21 September 2012.
  86. ^ "Priory of Sion". Crystalinks. Retrieved 15 March 2020.
  87. ^ Rackham, O. (1976). Trees and Woodland in the British Landscape J. M. Dent, London.
  88. ^ Armstrong, J. V.; Sell, P. D. (1996). "A revision of the British elms (Ulmus L., Ulmaceae): the historical background". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 120: 39–50. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.1996.tb00478.x. Archived from the original on 26 October 2017. Retrieved 26 October 2017.
  89. ^ a b Richens, Elm (Cambridge, 1983)
  90. ^ elmcare.com/about_elms/history/liberty_elm_boston.htm
  91. ^ L'Orme de La Madeleine, giuseppemusolino.it Archived 26 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine
  92. ^ a b L'Orme de St-Gervais: biographie d'un arbre, www.paris.fr Archived 6 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  93. ^ Ulmus 'Wanoux' (Vada)) freeimagefinder.com/detail/6945514690.html
  94. ^ calabriaonline.com Archived 30 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  95. ^ Ο μοναδικός Εθνικός μας Κήπος, paidevo.gr/teachers/?p=859
  96. ^ Νίκος Μπελαβίλας, ΜΥΘΟΙ ΚΑΙ ΠΡΑΓΜΑΤΙΚΟΤΗΤΕΣ ΓΙΑ ΤΟ ΜΗΤΡΟΠΟΛΙΤΙΚΟ ΠΑΡΚΟ ΕΛΛΗΝΙΚΟΥ, courses.arch.ntua.gr/fsr/112047/Nikos_Belavilas-Mythoi_kai_Pragmatikotites
  97. ^ Elizabeth and Mary Kirby, Talks about Trees: a popular account of their nature and uses, 3rd edn., p.97-98 (1st edn. titled Chapters on Trees: a popular account of their nature and uses, London, 1873)
  98. ^ Tottenham: Growth before 1850', A History of the County of Middlesex: Volume 5: Hendon, Kingsbury, Great Stanmore, Little Stanmore, Edmonton Enfield, Monken Hadley, South Mimms, Tottenham (1976)
  99. ^ "London Gardens Online". www.londongardensonline.org.uk. Archived from the original on 27 January 2018. Retrieved 26 January 2018.

Monographs

[edit]
  • Richens, R. H. (1983). Elm. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-24916-3. A scientific, historical and cultural study, with a thesis on elm-classification, followed by a systematic survey of elms in England, region by region. Illustrated.
  • Heybroek, H. M., Goudzwaard, L, Kaljee, H. (2009). Iep of olm, karakterboom van de Lage Landen (:Elm, a tree with character of the Low Countries). KNNV, Uitgeverij. ISBN 9789050112819. A history of elm planting in the Netherlands, concluding with a 40 – page illustrated review of all the DED – resistant cultivars in commerce in 2009.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Clouston, B.; Stansfield, K., eds. (1979). After the Elm. London: Heinemann. ISBN 0-434-13900-9. A general introduction, with a history of Dutch elm disease and proposals for re-landscaping in the aftermath of the pandemic. Illustrated.
  • Coleman, M., ed. (2009). Wych Elm. Edinburgh. ISBN 978-1-906129-21-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) A study of the species, with particular reference to the wych elm in Scotland and its use by craftsmen.
  • Dunn, Christopher P. (2000). The Elms: Breeding, Conservation, and Disease-Management. New York: Boston, Mass. Kluwer academic. ISBN 0-7923-7724-9.
  • Wilkinson, G. (1978). Epitaph for the Elm. London: Hutchinson. ISBN 0-09-921280-3. A photographic and pictorial celebration and general introduction.
[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ulmus.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elm&oldid=1265441706"